TR, FCGS, PD3, “tooth 409”, crown amputation — a dental report is full of words that mean little without an explanation.
Here they are in plain language, with a link to the full topic.
Also: tooth enamel
Enamel is the hardest tissue in the body and covers the outside of the tooth crown. In dogs and cats it is much thinner than in people, and once a tooth has erupted it cannot regenerate, so a chip or crack will not grow back. Damage exposes the dentine underneath, through which bacteria and irritants can reach the pulp, so even a small chip is worth showing to a veterinary dentist.
How a dog's and cat's mouth works →Also: dentin, exposed dentine
Dentine is the hard, yellowish tissue beneath the enamel that makes up most of the tooth. It is full of microscopic tubules leading to the pulp, so exposed dentine can be sensitive and can let bacteria into the tooth. Living pulp keeps laying down new dentine from the inside throughout life: this is why tooth walls thicken with age, and why slow wear leaves a protective brown spot in the centre of the tooth.
How exposed dentine is sealed →Also: tooth nerve, dental pulp
The pulp is the living soft tissue inside a tooth, containing nerves, blood vessels and the cells that form dentine. It fills the space in the crown (the pulp chamber) and continues down each root as a narrow root canal, which the vessels and nerve enter through the root tip. The pulp senses pain and keeps the tooth alive, so when it is exposed by a fracture, inflamed or dead, the tooth needs treatment even if the pet is eating as usual.
When the pulp becomes inflamed →Also: root cementum
Cementum is a thin layer of hard tissue covering the outside of the root, much as enamel covers the crown. The fibres of the periodontal ligament are anchored into it, so this is how the tooth is held in the bone. When periodontitis destroys the attachment or the gum recedes, the cementum is exposed and plaque and tartar build up on it quickly, and in tooth resorption (TR) the destruction can start in the cementum near the gum line.
How periodontitis destroys tooth support →Also: visible part of the tooth
The crown is the part of the tooth above the gum, covered with enamel: it is what an owner sees when lifting the lip. Below the gum it continues into the root, and in many teeth, especially the canines, the root is much longer than the crown. It should not be confused with an artificial dental crown, the cap used to protect a weakened tooth, and a “crown fracture” means the visible part of the tooth has broken.
Tooth structure and types →Also: dental root
The root is the part of the tooth that sits in the jawbone below the gum and is held there by the periodontal ligament. Incisors and canines have one root each, while premolars and molars have one to three. Most of a tooth is hidden below the gum line, so the condition of the roots and the bone around them can only be seen on dental radiographs.
How dental X-rays show the roots →Also: root tip, apex
The root apex is the tip of the root, where the blood vessels and nerve enter the pulp. In a young animal it is still wide open and only finishes forming after the permanent tooth has erupted, and the root walls are thin at this stage. When the pulp becomes infected or dies, the inflammation leaves through the apex into the bone, which is why radiographs are checked for a dark periapical area around it.
How root canals are treated →Also: CEJ, tooth neck
The cementoenamel junction is the line where the enamel of the crown meets the cementum of the root; in a healthy tooth it sits just below the gum margin. Attachment loss in periodontitis is measured from this line, so it is a reference point on the dental chart. The neck of the tooth is a vulnerable area: plaque collects here, and in cats this is often where the first signs of tooth resorption (TR) appear.
Tooth resorption in cats →Also: tooth-supporting tissues
The periodontium is the group of tissues that surround and support a tooth: the gum, the periodontal ligament, the root cementum and the alveolar bone. These are the tissues affected by periodontal disease: first the gum becomes inflamed (gingivitis), and later the ligament and bone are destroyed (periodontitis). Periodontics, or periodontology, is the branch of dentistry that treats these tissues.
About periodontal treatment →Also: PDL, periodontal ligament space
The periodontal ligament is a thin layer of fibres between the root and the wall of the socket that suspends the tooth in the bone and cushions it when the pet bites. It contains blood vessels and nerve endings, so the tooth can sense pressure. On a dental radiograph the ligament appears as a thin dark line around the root, the periodontal ligament space; if it widens or disappears, this helps identify periodontitis, inflammation at the root tip or tooth resorption (TR).
Periodontitis in cats →Also: socket, alveolus
Alveolar bone is the part of the jaw that holds the tooth sockets (alveoli). Periodontitis gradually destroys it, and how much bone is left around the root largely decides whether a tooth can be kept. After an extraction the socket gradually fills with new bone, and bone loss that cannot be seen under the gum is shown by dental radiographs.
Why pets need dental X-rays →Also: gingival crevice
The gingival sulcus is the shallow groove between the gum margin and the tooth that every healthy tooth has. In dogs it is normally no more than a few millimetres deep, and in cats it is shallower still. Bacteria collect in the sulcus, which is where gingivitis begins, and when periodontitis destroys the attachment the sulcus deepens into a periodontal pocket.
How gingivitis starts →Also: attached gingiva, healthy gums
The gingiva, or gum, is the firm lining that wraps around the necks of the teeth and seals off the root and bone. The free gum margin lies against the tooth and forms the sulcus; below it is the attached gingiva, firmly bound to the bone, which then gives way to the mobile lining of the lips and cheeks. Healthy gums are pink (in many pets with natural dark patches of pigment), with a smooth, thin margin, and they are not swollen and do not bleed when touched lightly.
If the gums are red or bleeding →Also: lining of the mouth, oral pigmentation
The oral mucosa lines the cheeks, lips, palate, tongue and floor of the mouth and acts as a barrier between oral bacteria and the body's tissues. It heals quickly, but ulcers, burns and injuries to it are painful. Many dogs and cats have natural black or brown patches of pigment on the gums, palate or tongue: what matters is not the colour itself but a spot that is new, growing, raised or bleeding, which should be examined and, if needed, biopsied.
How the mouth works: barrier and blood supply →Also: front teeth
Incisors are the small front teeth, six in the upper jaw and six in the lower jaw in both dogs and cats. Pets use them to pick up small pieces, to nibble and to groom the coat. The bone around the incisors is thin, so with periodontitis, especially in small dogs, they can loosen and fall out early.
If a tooth is loose or has fallen out →Also: canines, fangs
The canines are the longest teeth, two in the upper jaw and two in the lower; pets use them to hold prey, a toy or an object. A canine's root is much longer than its visible crown, and the upper canine is separated from the nasal cavity by only a thin plate of bone. So a broken canine with an exposed pulp, periodontitis around a canine or its extraction all need careful treatment to avoid lasting pain or an opening into the nose.
If a dog breaks a canine →Also: cheek teeth
Premolars are the teeth with sharp cutting edges behind the canines, used to bite off and cut up pieces. A dog has four in each half of each jaw; a cat has three in each half of the upper jaw and two in each half of the lower. A dog's first premolars have no deciduous predecessors and may fail to erupt in small and brachycephalic breeds, and in short-nosed pets the premolars are often crowded or rotated, which makes it easier for plaque to collect between them.
Teeth in brachycephalic breeds →Also: back teeth
Molars are the teeth at the very back of the mouth, and they erupt as permanent teeth straight away: there are no molars among the deciduous teeth. A dog has two in each half of the upper jaw and three in each half of the lower, and their broad, cusped surface helps break up food. A cat has only one molar in each half of each jaw, and in dogs caries can develop in the pits and grooves on the biting surface of the molars.
Caries in dogs →Also: tooth 108, upper fourth premolar
The carnassials are the largest cutting teeth: the upper fourth premolar (108 and 208) and the lower first molar (309 and 409), which close like scissors when a pet bites through large pieces. In dogs the upper carnassial has three roots lying close to the area under the eye, so inflammation around them can show up as a swelling or draining tract under the eye. These teeth can break on bones, antlers or stones that are too hard, and such a fracture needs a radiograph and treatment.
Why a tooth can cause swelling under the eye →Also: baby teeth, milk teeth, puppy teeth
Deciduous, or temporary, teeth are the first set: puppies have 28, which erupt from about 3–6 weeks of age, and kittens have 26, from about 2–6 weeks. From about 4 to 7 months they are replaced by permanent teeth: the root of each deciduous tooth is resorbed and the tooth falls out. Deciduous teeth are thin and sharp, and the permanent teeth develop beneath them, so a broken deciduous tooth, or one that has not fallen out on time, needs an examination.
When puppies change their teeth →Also: adult teeth
Permanent teeth erupt in place of the deciduous ones from about 4 to 7 months of age: an adult dog has 42 and a cat 30, regardless of breed or size. There is no second replacement, so a permanent tooth that breaks, is lost or is extracted will not grow back. In a young animal a permanent tooth is still maturing inside: the pulp is wide and the root walls are thin and gradually thicken, which is taken into account when choosing treatment after a fracture.
How many teeth dogs and cats have →Also: how many teeth dogs have, how many teeth cats have
A dental formula is a shorthand for the number of teeth of each type in one half of the mouth: I — incisors, C — canines, P — premolars, M — molars, and in each pair the first number is the upper jaw and the second the lower. For a dog's permanent teeth it is 2 × (I 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 2/3) = 42, for a cat 2 × (I 3/3, C 1/1, P 3/2, M 1/1) = 30, and deciduous teeth are written in lower-case letters. If there are fewer or more teeth than the formula says, a dental radiograph shows why: a tooth may be unerupted, lost, left behind as a root, or extra.
Dental formula with a chart →Also: normal bite, how the teeth meet
Occlusion is the way the upper and lower teeth meet. For most dogs and cats the normal bite is a scissor bite: the upper incisors sit just in front of the lower ones and touch them, the lower canine fits into the gap between the upper third incisor and the upper canine, and a dog's premolars alternate when the mouth is closed without hitting each other. The key question at an examination is whether the teeth injure the gums, palate, lips or other teeth, because that is when a deviation from normal needs treatment.
If the teeth do not meet properly →Also: TMJ, jaw joint
The temporomandibular joint connects the lower jaw to the skull on each side, just in front of the ear, and allows the mouth to open and close. In dogs and cats it works mainly as a hinge, so the jaw moves chiefly up and down. Pain on opening the mouth, being unable to open or close it, or a lopsided jaw after an injury can be signs of joint disease, dislocation or fracture, and CT is usually needed to assess it.
If your pet cannot close its mouth →Also: saliva, drooling
The salivary glands produce saliva, which moistens food, rinses away debris and partly neutralises acids; dogs and cats have several pairs of major glands, including ones near the ear, under the lower jaw, under the tongue and below the eye, plus small glands in the oral lining. Excessive drooling is more often caused not by the glands themselves but by pain in the mouth, such as a broken tooth, stomatitis or a foreign body, or by nausea or poisoning. If a gland or its duct is damaged, saliva can collect in the tissues and form a salivary mucocele.
If your pet is drooling →Also: roof of the mouth, palatal ridges
The palate is the roof of the mouth, separating it from the nose. The front part, the hard palate, has a bony base and is covered with transverse ridges of mucosa; behind it lies the soft palate, which has no bone and closes off the back of the nose during swallowing. A hole or cleft in the palate, whether present from birth or caused by an injury such as a cat's fall from a height, connects the mouth with the nose, so the pet sneezes and food or liquid can get into the nose.
Cat fell from a window: palate injuries →Also: nerve of the lower jaw, infraorbital nerve
A canal runs through the lower jaw carrying the inferior alveolar nerve and the blood vessels that supply the lower teeth; the upper teeth receive nerve branches from the maxillary nerve, including the infraorbital nerve. Local dental nerve blocks are placed next to these nerves. In small dogs the roots of the lower first molar take up a large part of the jaw's height and lie very close to the canal, so extracting this tooth calls for care and radiographs to avoid damaging the nerve or fracturing weakened bone.
Nerves and blood vessels of the mouth →Also: COHAT procedure
COHAT stands for Comprehensive Oral Health Assessment and Treatment: a full assessment and treatment of the mouth under general inhalation anaesthesia. It includes examining every tooth, periodontal probing, full-mouth dental radiography, a dental chart, cleaning above and below the gum line and polishing, with treatment carried out when clinically indicated. It is more than a clean: much of what it finds lies below the gum line and can only be seen on probing and radiographs.
More about COHAT →Also: dental X-rays, full-mouth radiographs
Dental radiography means X-rays taken with a dedicated dental unit under anaesthesia, so that every tooth can be seen together with its roots. A full-mouth set covers the whole mouth, not only the tooth that seems to be the problem. A large part of each tooth lies below the gum line, so only radiographs show bone loss, root resorption, inflammation at the root tip, unerupted teeth and retained root fragments.
More about dental radiography →Also: periodontal charting
Periodontal probing is measuring the depth of the space between the gum and the tooth with a thin, blunt instrument marked in millimetres. The probe is gently inserted at several points around every tooth, and the depth, bleeding, gum recession and furcation involvement are recorded. It reveals periodontal pockets that cannot be seen from the outside, which is why probing is an essential part of COHAT and is done under anaesthesia.
More about periodontal treatment →A periodontal pocket is an abnormally deep space between the gum and the tooth root that forms when periodontitis destroys the ligament and bone around the root. Plaque and bacteria collect in the pocket out of reach of a toothbrush, so the inflammation continues. Pocket depth is measured with a probe, and the treatment — deep cleaning, regenerative therapy or extraction — is chosen together with the dental radiographs.
More about periodontitis in cats →Also: receding gums, exposed root
Gingival recession is when the gum margin moves down towards the root tip, exposing the root and making the tooth look “longer”. It is a sign that the tooth has lost support, most often because of periodontitis, even if there is no deep pocket next to it. During COHAT recession is measured with a probe and combined with pocket depths to determine the stage of periodontal disease.
More about periodontal treatment →The furcation is the area between the roots of a multi-rooted tooth, such as a premolar or molar. When periodontitis destroys the bone there, the probe passes between the roots: F1 — less than halfway under the tooth, F2 — more than halfway but not through, F3 — all the way through. The higher the grade, the poorer the outlook for keeping the tooth, and through-and-through involvement (F3) corresponds to advanced periodontitis.
More about periodontitis in dogs →Also: loose tooth, wobbly tooth
Tooth mobility is graded on the AVDC scale: M0 — normal, M1 — slight, M2 — moderate, M3 — marked or vertical movement. A tooth most often becomes loose because periodontitis has destroyed bone, but a root fracture, resorption or a jaw injury can also be the cause. Deciduous teeth are expected to loosen while they are being replaced, but a loose permanent tooth needs an examination and a radiograph.
If a tooth is loose →Also: dental charting, odontogram
A dental chart is a record of every tooth by its Triadan number: missing teeth, pocket depths, recession, mobility, fractures, resorption and the treatment carried out. It is completed during COHAT together with the radiograph findings. The chart makes it possible to compare the mouth accurately at later check-ups and to show the owner what was done to each tooth.
What COHAT includes →Also: tooth numbers, tooth 108
Each tooth is given a three-digit number: the first digit is the quadrant (1 — upper right, 2 — upper left, 3 — lower left, 4 — lower right, and 5–8 — the same quadrants for deciduous teeth), and the next two digits are the tooth's position from 01 to 11, counting from the midline. Right and left are the animal's own sides, and a canine's number always ends in 04 and the first molar's in 09. So in a dog 104 is the upper right canine and 409 is the lower right first molar. Cats have fewer teeth, but the numbers are not shifted: missing positions are simply skipped, so a cat has no tooth 105, for example.
Tooth chart and numbers →Also: histology
A biopsy is taking a piece of tissue, or the whole mass, and histopathology is examining that tissue under a microscope. Only histopathology can say for certain whether a mass in the mouth is inflammation, a benign growth or a malignant tumour, because they can look alike. The result determines the extent of surgery and the next steps, which may require CT or an oncologist's opinion.
About oral masses →Also: clinical attachment loss, bone loss around a tooth
Attachment loss is how much of the ligament and bone holding a tooth has been destroyed by periodontitis. It is measured with a probe from the cementoenamel junction: if the gum has receded, the recession is added to the pocket depth, and the result is called the clinical attachment level (CAL). This measurement, together with radiographs, rather than pocket depth or the amount of tartar alone, determines the stage of periodontitis from PD2 to PD4.
Periodontitis stages in dogs →Also: explorer probe, shepherd's hook
An explorer is a thin, sharp-tipped instrument the veterinary dentist uses to examine the surface of every tooth under anaesthesia. It detects rough areas, soft dentine in caries and resorptive defects near the gum line, and checks whether a fracture has exposed the pulp. Unlike a periodontal probe, with its blunt tip and millimetre markings, an explorer does not measure pockets, so both instruments are used during COHAT.
Caries or resorption in a cat →Also: CT scan, cone-beam CT, 3D scan
Computed tomography is a three-dimensional X-ray examination that shows the bones of the skull and jaws in slices, without one structure overlapping another; cone-beam CT (CBCT) is a type of CT particularly suited to teeth and jaws. CT helps assess complex jaw fractures, the jaw joint, and how far a tumour has spread into bone and the nasal cavity. The pet has to lie completely still, so it is done under sedation or anaesthesia, and for individual teeth CT usually complements rather than replaces dental radiographs.
Diagnosing jaw fractures →Also: FNA, needle sample
Cytology is the examination of individual cells under a microscope: they are collected with a fine needle from a mass or lymph node, or by pressing a slide against the surface of an ulcer. It is quicker and simpler than a biopsy and can suggest whether something is inflammation or a particular type of tumour. However, masses in the mouth are often inflamed or ulcerated and the sample may not give an answer, so the final diagnosis and treatment plan mostly rest on histopathology, while lymph node cytology is used to check whether a tumour has spread.
How gum growths are diagnosed →Also: dental plaque, biofilm
Plaque is a soft, sticky film of bacteria that forms on the teeth every day, especially along the gum line. Plaque is what causes gingivitis and periodontitis, and its bacteria spread below the gum. It can be removed with a toothbrush, but if it is left, it mineralises and turns into calculus (tartar).
How plaque causes gingivitis →Also: tartar, dental calculus
Calculus, or tartar, is mineralised plaque: hard yellow-brown deposits on the teeth. Its rough surface holds even more plaque, and it cannot be removed with a toothbrush or pastes. What happens below the gum line matters more than the visible tartar, so the amount of calculus does not show the stage of disease, and scraping off visible tartar without anaesthesia does not treat periodontitis.
More about tartar →Also: gum inflammation, red gums
Gingivitis is inflammation of the gums: they turn red, swell, may bleed, and the breath starts to smell. It is most often caused by plaque, and at this stage (PD1) the bone around the tooth is still intact, so it is reversible with professional cleaning and regular home care. In cats, red gums are also seen with tooth resorption (TR), chronic gingivostomatitis and juvenile gingivitis.
More about gingivitis →Also: periodontal disease, gum disease
Periodontitis is inflammation that spreads from the gums deeper into the tissues that hold the tooth in place: the ligament, the root cementum and the bone. Lost attachment does not grow back on its own, so pockets and gum recession form and teeth loosen and fall out. A pet may keep eating even with painful periodontitis, and treatment depends on the stage: deep cleaning below the gum line, regenerative therapy in selected cases, or extraction.
More about periodontitis →Also: periodontitis stages
The stage is set for each tooth separately using the AVDC classification: PD0 — normal; PD1 — gingivitis without bone loss, still reversible; PD2 — early periodontitis with less than 25% attachment loss; PD3 — moderate, 25–50%; PD4 — advanced, more than 50%. The percentage is measured against root length, and in multi-rooted teeth furcation involvement also raises the stage. PD2 and PD3 can look like ordinary gingivitis, so the stage cannot be judged from the gums or the amount of tartar, only from probing and dental radiographs under anaesthesia.
Periodontitis stages in detail →Also: FORL (older term), cavities in cats
Tooth resorption (TR) is the gradual destruction of a tooth's hard tissues by the body's own cells; it is common in cats, also occurs in dogs, and its cause is not fully understood. Stages 1–5 describe depth: from a small defect in the cementum or enamel (1), through the dentine (2) and the pulp (3), to extensive destruction of the crown (4) and finally no crown left, with root remnants visible only on a radiograph (5). The type is determined on a dental radiograph: in type 1 the root keeps its outline and canal, in type 2 it is being replaced by bone-like tissue, and type 3 combines both. The process is irreversible and painful and fillings do not help, so the tooth is extracted, and crown amputation is used only for type 2 roots under strict conditions.
More about tooth resorption →Also: stomatitis in cats, caudal stomatitis
FCGS is a chronic, severe inflammation of the gums and the lining of the mouth in cats, especially at the back of the mouth on either side of the base of the tongue. It is thought to be an exaggerated immune reaction to plaque bacteria, possibly with a viral contribution, but the cause is not fully understood. It is very painful: cats drool, have bad breath and blood-stained saliva, are reluctant to eat and groom less. The treatment with the best evidence is extraction of teeth (some or all) with radiographic checks, while medication alone brings only temporary relief.
More about stomatitis in cats →Also: juvenile hyperplastic gingivitis
Juvenile gingivitis is marked gum inflammation in some young cats that appears while the permanent teeth are erupting or soon afterwards, sometimes together with gum overgrowth. The gums are bright red and swollen, bleed when the cat eats, and the breath smells. The reasons for this reaction are not fully understood, and without treatment it can progress to periodontitis at a young age, so it needs professional cleaning, careful home care, more frequent check-ups and, when clinically indicated, gingivectomy.
About kittens' teeth and gums →Pulpitis is inflammation of the pulp, the living tissue inside a tooth that contains nerves and blood vessels. It is caused by a fracture that exposes the pulp, deep caries or resorption, or a blow to the tooth even without a visible fracture. Pets often hide pain, and without treatment the pulp dies and the inflammation spreads to the bone at the root tip, so the tooth is saved with vital pulpotomy or root canal treatment, or extracted.
More about pulpitis →Also: dead tooth, non-vital tooth, discoloured tooth
Pulp necrosis is the death of the living tissue inside a tooth after a fracture, a blow or infection. After an injury the tooth may first turn pink and later purple, grey or brown, although sometimes the colour does not change. Dead pulp becomes a source of infection for the bone around the root, so such a tooth needs a dental radiograph and root canal treatment or extraction.
Why a tooth changes colour →Also: tooth root abscess, periapical abscess
A periapical lesion is inflammation in the bone around the root tip, most often caused by infected or dead pulp. On a radiograph it looks like a dark area around the root, and from the outside it may go unnoticed for a long time. Sometimes it causes a swelling under the eye or on the jaw, or a draining tract on the skin or gum. The source is removed with root canal treatment or extraction, because antibiotics alone do not deal with the cause.
Swelling under the eye from a tooth →Also: broken tooth, exposed pulp
In an uncomplicated fracture the enamel and dentine have broken off but the pulp is still covered; in a complicated fracture the pulp is exposed and a pink, red or dark dot is visible at the fracture site. Exposed pulp is painful and will inevitably become infected, so the tooth needs treatment: vital pulpotomy if the fracture is fresh, root canal treatment, or extraction. An uncomplicated fracture is also checked with a radiograph, and exposed dentine is sealed with a restoration when clinically indicated.
What to do about a broken tooth →Also: retained deciduous teeth, double canines
A persistent deciduous tooth is one that has not fallen out even though the permanent tooth is already erupting next to it, so two teeth stand in the same place, most often the canines. It is common in small-breed dogs. The deciduous tooth pushes the permanent one out of position, causes crowding and traps plaque, so it is extracted as soon as it is noticed — carefully, with the whole root, and checked with a radiograph.
If deciduous teeth have not fallen out →Also: impacted tooth, embedded tooth, missing tooth
An unerupted tooth stays inside the bone or under the gum, so it looks as if it is simply missing; most often these are the first premolars in small and brachycephalic dogs. Only a dental radiograph can tell a missing tooth from an unerupted one. A dentigerous cyst can form around an unerupted tooth and quietly destroy the jawbone, so such a tooth is usually extracted; if a cyst is already present, its lining is removed too and sent for histopathology.
More about unerupted teeth →Also: bad bite, overshot, undershot, wry bite
Malocclusion is an abnormal fit of the teeth or jaws, which the AVDC divides into four classes. MAL1 — the jaws are of normal length but individual teeth are out of position; MAL2 — the lower jaw is shorter than the upper (“overshot”); MAL3 — the lower jaw is longer (“undershot”); MAL4 — the jaws are asymmetrical. The class only describes the bite; treatment is needed when the teeth injure the gums, palate or other teeth, or interfere with the normal change of teeth.
Bite problems in puppies →Also: base-narrow canines, lower canines hitting the palate
Linguoversion means the lower canines are tilted inwards, towards the tongue, so they hit the gum or palate behind the upper canines. It is painful, leaves sores and pits, and over time can create a deep defect, even an opening into the nasal cavity. It is often seen in puppies with retained deciduous canines or a narrow lower jaw, and the earlier the examination, the more treatment options there are, from extracting the deciduous canines to orthodontic correction.
If a canine hits the palate →Also: enamel defect, distemper teeth
Enamel hypoplasia means the enamel did not form properly: while the permanent teeth were developing, too little was laid down or it was of poor quality. Causes include a high fever or infection in a young animal, such as distemper, or an injury to a deciduous tooth. The affected teeth have rough areas, pits and brown patches, plaque sticks to them more easily and exposed dentine may be sensitive, so they are checked with radiographs and sealed with restorations when clinically indicated.
Case: restoring a canine with an enamel defect →Also: worn teeth
Attrition is wear from tooth-to-tooth contact in a faulty bite; abrasion is wear from external objects such as tennis balls, stones, cage bars or chews that are too hard. When a tooth wears slowly, the pulp has time to lay down protective dentine, seen as a brown spot in the centre. If wear is rapid, the pulp may become exposed or die, so worn teeth are checked with a probe and a dental radiograph.
More about worn teeth →Also: tooth decay, cavity
Caries is the destruction of enamel and dentine by acids that plaque bacteria produce from sugars and starches in food. In dogs it is most often found in the pits and grooves on the biting surface of the large back teeth and looks like a dark spot or hole with soft dentine. In cats true caries is not a typical finding, and a “hole” in a cat's tooth usually turns out to be tooth resorption (TR). Depending on depth, caries is treated with a restoration, root canal treatment or extraction.
More about caries in dogs →Also: oronasal communication
An oronasal fistula is an opening between the mouth and the nasal cavity. It most often develops when severe periodontitis destroys the thin bone on the palatal side of an upper canine, but it can also follow an extraction, trauma or a tumour. The pet sneezes and may have nasal discharge, sometimes bloody or from one side only; such an opening does not heal on its own and needs surgical closure with a flap.
More about oronasal fistulas →Also: gum growth, gum lump
Epulis is a general descriptive name for growths on the gums, which are more common in dogs. Some are benign, such as peripheral odontogenic fibroma, but acanthomatous ameloblastoma invades bone, and from the outside these growths can resemble a malignant tumour. That is why only histopathology identifies the type, and it determines how widely the growth needs to be removed.
Gum growths: diagnosis →Also: indolent ulcer, rodent ulcer
The eosinophilic granuloma complex is a group of similar skin and oral reactions in cats: the indolent ulcer of the upper lip, firm nodules in the mouth or on the chin, and eosinophilic plaques on the skin. It is often driven by allergy to fleas, food or environmental factors, though in some cats no cause is found. Trauma from a tooth, stomatitis and tumours can look similar, so an ulcer that does not heal is checked with a biopsy, and a dermatologist may be needed to manage the allergy.
More about lip ulcers in cats →Also: bad breath
Halitosis is persistent bad breath. The most common cause is bacteria in plaque and tartar with gingivitis and periodontitis, but resorption, broken teeth, stomatitis, tumours and foreign bodies also cause it, and a smell of acetone or urine can point to disease elsewhere in the body. Sprays and additives only mask the smell, so an examination is needed to find the cause.
If your pet has bad breath →Also: CCUS, canine chronic ulcerative stomatitis, kissing ulcers
CUPS, also called CCUS, is a chronic inflammation of the lining of the mouth in dogs: painful ulcers form where the cheek or lip touches plaque-covered teeth, which is why they are sometimes called “kissing ulcers”. It is thought to be an exaggerated immune reaction to plaque bacteria, though the cause is not fully understood, and other diseases can look similar, so the diagnosis is confirmed with a biopsy when clinically indicated. Affected dogs have very bad breath, drool and are painful when eating. Treatment combines professional cleaning, meticulous daily plaque control at home and extraction of the teeth next to the ulcers, with the extent decided by the veterinary dentist.
Stomatitis in dogs →Also: oral papillomas, mouth warts in dogs
Papillomatosis means benign, cauliflower-like growths on the lips, gums, tongue or palate caused by the canine papillomavirus. It is seen mostly in young dogs and spreads between dogs through contact; this virus does not pass to people or cats. In many dogs the papillomas disappear on their own as immunity develops, but if there are many of them, they interfere with eating, bleed, do not go away or appear in an adult dog, an examination is needed and, when clinically indicated, removal and histopathology.
Oral papillomas in dogs →Also: malignant melanoma, black growth in the mouth
Malignant melanoma is one of the main malignant tumours of the mouth in dogs and is found mostly in older animals. It can be black, grey, pink or have no pigment at all, and it can grow quickly and spread to the lymph nodes and lungs. Unlike natural flat pigment patches that stay the same for years, warning signs are a growth that is enlarging, raised, bleeding or new; the diagnosis is made only by histopathology, and the treatment plan after checking how far the tumour has spread.
Pigment spot or melanoma →Also: SCC, oral cancer
Squamous cell carcinoma is a malignant tumour arising from the lining of the mouth, seen in both dogs and cats. In cats it can look like a non-healing ulcer, swelling of the gum or jaw, loosening teeth or a growth under the tongue, so it is easily mistaken for periodontitis or stomatitis. It can invade bone, so an early biopsy, staging and a discussion of treatment options with a veterinary oncologist, including surgical removal with part of the jaw, are important.
Oral masses and tumours →Also: oral sarcoma
Fibrosarcoma is a malignant tumour of connective tissue that in the mouth mainly appears on the gums or palate; in dogs it is found more often in large breeds. It grows as a firm mass and invades deep into the surrounding tissue and bone, so it can come back after incomplete removal. Sometimes it looks less aggressive under the microscope than it really behaves, so histopathology is interpreted together with CT findings, and treatment usually requires wide removal with part of the jaw.
Tumours of the mouth →Also: acanthomatous epulis (older term), CAA
Canine acanthomatous ameloblastoma is a tumour in dogs that arises from the cells involved in forming teeth and usually grows on the gums, often at the front of the lower jaw. It does not spread to other organs, so it is considered benign, but it invades the jawbone and can displace and loosen teeth. That is why it is removed together with a margin of bone, for example by partial mandibulectomy or maxillectomy, and only histopathology can confirm what the growth is.
Epulis in dogs →Also: fibromatous epulis, ossifying epulis, POF
Peripheral odontogenic fibroma is a benign, firm growth on the gum that arises from the tissues around a tooth, including the periodontal ligament, and is seen mostly in dogs. It grows slowly, may contain bone-like or tooth-like material, and unlike acanthomatous ameloblastoma it does not invade the jawbone. To reduce the risk of regrowth, it is removed together with the adjacent tissue, sometimes with the tooth it grows from, and is always sent for histopathology.
Types of epulis →Also: gingival enlargement, overgrown gums
Gingival hyperplasia is an overgrowth of gum tissue that thickens the gums and partly covers the tooth crowns. A tendency to it can be inherited, for example in Boxers, and it can also be caused by chronic inflammation and certain medicines, so it is worth telling the vet about every medication the pet receives. False pockets full of plaque form under overgrown gums, and a tumour can look similar, so the tissue is removed by gingivectomy and sent for histopathology when clinically indicated.
If there is a growth on the gum →Also: sialocele, swelling under the tongue, soft lump under the jaw
A salivary mucocele is a collection of saliva in the tissues that has leaked from a damaged salivary gland or duct; it is seen more often in dogs. It appears as a soft, usually painless swelling under the jaw or on the neck, under the tongue (where it is called a ranula) or in the wall of the throat, where it can interfere with swallowing and breathing. Draining it only shrinks the swelling for a while, so to stop it coming back the affected glands are usually removed surgically.
Oral surgery →Also: palatal cleft, traumatic palate split
A cleft palate is a gap in the hard or soft palate through which the mouth communicates with the nasal cavity. A congenital cleft is noticeable in newborns: milk comes out of the nose while they suckle, they gain weight poorly and may inhale food, which can lead to pneumonia. An acquired cleft follows an injury, for example in a cat that has fallen from a height, and like a congenital one it needs an examination and surgical closure, with the timing decided by the vet.
Puppy and kitten dentistry →Also: knocked-out tooth, displaced tooth, avulsed tooth
Luxation is displacement of a tooth in its socket after a blow: the tooth is loose, tilted, pushed into the bone or partly out of it, and in avulsion it comes out of the socket completely. This is an emergency: hold a knocked-out tooth by the crown without touching the root, do not clean it, put it in milk or saline so the root does not dry out, and get your pet to the vet as quickly as possible. The chance of saving the tooth depends on how much time has passed and whether the root is intact, and afterwards the tooth needs follow-up radiographs and, as a rule, root canal treatment.
First aid for a knocked-out tooth →Also: fractured root, crown-root fracture
A root fracture is a crack or break in the part of the tooth hidden in the bone, most often after a blow, a fall or chewing something too hard. The tooth may look intact and only be slightly loose, so this fracture can only be seen on a dental radiograph. If the fracture line runs from the crown below the gum (a crown-root fracture), the fragment is often mobile and painful, and the treatment — from monitoring and splinting to removing the fragments or the tooth — is chosen according to the level of the fracture and the condition of the pulp.
Tooth and jaw injuries →Also: retained root tip, root remnant
A retained root is part of a root left in the bone after a tooth fracture, resorption or incomplete extraction; the gum over it may heal completely, so the tooth simply looks missing. Such a root can be a source of inflammation, pain, a draining tract or an abscess, which is why a missing tooth is checked on a dental radiograph. Retained roots are usually removed; leaving them under radiographic monitoring is acceptable only under strict conditions, for example when a root affected by type 2 tooth resorption (TR) is already being replaced by bone with no signs of inflammation.
How teeth and roots are extracted →Also: extra tooth, hyperdontia
Supernumerary teeth are teeth in addition to the normal dental formula; most often they are extra incisors or premolars, and they occur in both dogs and cats. If there is enough room and the teeth are healthy, no treatment may be needed, but crowded teeth trap plaque and promote periodontitis, in which case the extra tooth is extracted when clinically indicated. In a young animal an “extra” tooth often turns out to be a deciduous tooth that has not fallen out, so the teeth are first identified on a radiograph.
Why there may be extra teeth →Also: oligodontia, missing teeth
Hypodontia is the congenital absence of one or more teeth because the tooth buds never formed; when many teeth are missing it is called oligodontia. From the outside it cannot be told apart from a tooth that never erupted and stayed in the bone, or from a retained root, and those conditions do need treatment. That is why a dental radiograph is taken whenever a tooth is missing, while true hypodontia usually needs no treatment.
If a tooth is missing →Also: long canine in a cat, supraeruption
Extrusion is the gradual movement of a canine out of its socket, which owners notice as the cat's canine having “grown longer”: the root becomes exposed and the bone around it may thicken. It mostly affects the upper canines and is linked to inflammation of the bone around the root and periodontitis, sometimes together with tooth resorption (TR). An extruded canine may become loose, injure the lower lip and collect plaque, so it is assessed by probing and radiographs and treated with periodontal therapy or extraction.
Why a cat's teeth fall out →Also: jaw bone infection
Osteomyelitis is an infection of the jawbone in which part of the bone may die and separate (a sequestrum). It develops with severe periodontitis, infected roots, open fractures, bites or complications after surgery, and causes pain, swelling, draining tracts with pus and loose teeth. On radiographs it can resemble a tumour, so a biopsy is taken when clinically indicated, and treatment means surgically removing the dead bone and the source of infection, with antibiotics prescribed by the vet only as a supplement.
Surgical treatment →Also: jaw fracture from periodontitis
A pathological fracture is a break in a jaw weakened by disease, caused by very little force: during play, while biting a treat or during an extraction. The most common cause is severe periodontitis around the lower canines and first molars in small dogs, which have very little bone there; tumours and cysts can also be responsible. Such fractures heal less readily, so treatment combines stabilising the jaw with dealing with the cause, and timely treatment of periodontitis helps prevent them.
Jaw fractures →Also: bacteria in the bloodstream, bacteremia
Bacteraemia means bacteria entering the bloodstream. With periodontitis the inflamed gums bleed, and bacteria from the pockets regularly enter the blood when the pet eats or chews, during toothbrushing and during dental procedures; a healthy body usually clears them quickly. Studies link periodontal disease in dogs with changes in the kidneys, liver and heart, so treating periodontitis matters for more than the mouth, and whether a pet needs an antibiotic before a procedure is decided by the vet based on its overall health.
How the mouth works: barrier and blood supply →Also: professional dental cleaning, teeth cleaning under anaesthesia, sanation
Oral cavity treatment, sometimes called sanation, is a general name for professional cleaning of the teeth under anaesthesia. Scaling above the gum line removes visible tartar, scaling below the gum line cleans the space between the gum and the tooth and any pockets, and polishing smooths the surface so plaque sticks to it less easily. The most important part is the cleaning below the gum line, which is impossible without anaesthesia, and the term itself does not say whether radiographs and an assessment of every tooth were done, as in the COHAT protocol.
Oral cavity treatment vs COHAT →Also: tooth extraction, surgical tooth removal
Surgical extraction is used for multi-rooted teeth, canines with long roots, fractured roots and teeth fused to the bone. A gum flap is raised, a little bone is carefully removed if needed, the tooth is sectioned into single-rooted pieces and each root is taken out, and the wound is closed with dissolvable stitches. It is done under anaesthesia with local blocks, and a radiograph afterwards confirms that no fragments are left in the bone.
More about extractions →Also: intentional root retention
Crown amputation is a treatment for tooth resorption (TR) in cats in which the crown is removed and the root, already being replaced by bone-like tissue, is deliberately left in place. It is done only for type 2 resorption, when the radiograph shows neither a root canal nor a periodontal ligament space, there is no periodontitis or inflammation at the root tip, and the cat does not have stomatitis. It is never done without a dental radiograph, and the root is monitored with follow-up radiographs.
Treating tooth resorption →Also: root canal treatment, endodontics
Endodontic treatment saves a tooth with infected or dead pulp: the pulp is removed, the canal is cleaned, disinfected and sealed, and the crown is closed with a restoration. This removes the source of pain and infection while the tooth stays in place and keeps working. It is used mainly for important teeth such as the canines and the large carnassial teeth, provided the root and the surrounding bone allow it, and the result is checked with follow-up radiographs.
More about endodontics →Also: vital pulp therapy
Vital pulpotomy treats a fresh fracture with an exposed pulp: only the top, contaminated part of the pulp at the fracture line is removed and the rest is kept alive. A medicated material is placed over it and the tooth is sealed with a restoration. It is suitable when little time has passed since the injury, especially in young dogs, whose living pulp continues to strengthen the root walls, and the result must be monitored with follow-up radiographs.
About vital pulpotomy →Also: filling, composite restoration
A restoration replaces the lost part of a tooth with a filling material, most often composite. It is used for caries, enamel defects, uncomplicated fractures and after root canal treatment, to seal the dentine against bacteria and restore the tooth's shape. The tooth is radiographed first, and with tooth resorption (TR) fillings do not help, because the destruction continues beneath them.
Tooth restoration in dogs →Also: fissure sealant
Fissure sealing is a preventive coating of the deep pits and grooves on the biting surface of the large back teeth with a flowable filling material. The sealant closes off the places where plaque and food debris collect and lowers the risk of caries. It is done on healthy teeth when clinically indicated, usually in dogs with deep fissures or caries already found on other teeth.
Case: fissure sealing →Also: zirconia crown
A dental crown is a custom-made cap that completely covers a weakened tooth and protects it from fracturing again. It is considered after root canal treatment or when much of the crown is lost, especially in dogs that put heavy loads on their canines through work, sport or play. The material, such as zirconia, and whether a crown is needed at all are decided after radiographs and an assessment of the bite.
More about crowns →Also: GTR therapy, regenerative periodontal therapy
GTR is a treatment for a localised bone defect around a tooth affected by periodontitis. After the root has been thoroughly cleaned, the defect is filled with bone graft material when clinically indicated and covered with a special barrier membrane, which stops the gum from growing into the defect and gives the bone and ligament time to regenerate. It is not suitable for every tooth: the decision is based on probing and radiographs, and the result also depends on careful home care.
Case: GTR and PRF in a cat →Also: PRF therapy
PRF is a concentrate made from the pet's own blood during the procedure: the blood is centrifuged to produce a fibrin clot containing platelets and growth factors. It is placed in an extraction socket, a periodontal defect or under a flap to support the natural healing of soft tissues. It is a supporting technique used when clinically indicated, often together with GTR.
About regenerative therapy →Also: gingivoplasty, removal of overgrown gums
Gingivectomy is the surgical removal of excess gum tissue that has overgrown and covers part of the crown. False pockets form under such gums, trapping plaque and food, and the overgrown tissue can be injured when the jaws close. The gum is trimmed back to a healthy level and reshaped (gingivoplasty), and the tissue is sent for histopathology when clinically indicated.
Case: gingivectomy in a kitten →Also: jaw fracture stabilisation, broken jaw
Splinting stabilises a jaw fracture after a fall, a blow or a bite, using a splint bonded to the teeth, wiring, or a combination of both. The main aim is to restore the correct bite and hold the fragments still while the bone heals, keeping the teeth wherever possible. Before treatment the injured teeth and bone are assessed on radiographs, CT may be needed, and the splint is removed after a follow-up check.
More about jaw fractures →Also: piezoelectric bone surgery
Piezosurgery means working on bone with an instrument whose tip vibrates at ultrasonic frequency. It cuts mainly hard, mineralised tissue and is less likely to damage the gums, blood vessels and nerves, and it allows precise work in a confined space. It is used for complex extractions and for removing unerupted teeth and cysts, but the choice of instrument depends on the clinical situation and does not promise the same result in every case.
More about piezosurgery →Also: bite correction, orthodontics
Orthodontic treatment in pets corrects the position of teeth so that they do not injure the gums, palate or other teeth; the aim is a comfortable bite, not cosmetics. Depending on age and the situation, it may involve extracting deciduous teeth that are in the way, a custom orthodontic appliance or other methods when clinically indicated. The plan is made after an examination and bite assessment, and treatment requires follow-up checks and careful home hygiene.
More about orthodontics →Also: deep cleaning, subgingival debridement
Root planing is cleaning the root surface inside a periodontal pocket of plaque and tartar with special fine instruments under anaesthesia. A smooth, clean root holds less plaque and the gum can fit more closely against it, so inflammation settles and the pocket may become shallower. It suits shallower pockets, deeper ones may need flap surgery, and the result depends on daily home care and follow-up checks.
Periodontal treatment →Also: open flap debridement, periodontal surgery
Flap surgery treats deep periodontal pockets: the gum is lifted back to expose the root and bone, these are thoroughly cleaned, the bone is reshaped or the defect filled with regenerative material if needed, and the gum is then stitched back into place. This allows cleaning of areas that closed root planing cannot reach. It only makes sense for teeth with enough remaining support and when the owner is ready to brush the pet's teeth daily; otherwise extraction is often the more reliable choice.
Periodontal surgery →Also: bone grafting, graft material
A bone graft is material placed in a bone defect so that it fills with new bone: either the pet's own bone or a ready-made bone substitute. It is used for periodontal defects together with guided tissue regeneration, after cyst removal and sometimes after a difficult extraction to support a weakened jaw. The material does not work instantly: it acts as a scaffold that is gradually replaced by the pet's own bone, and the result is checked with follow-up radiographs.
Regenerative periodontal treatment →Also: exposing an unerupted tooth
Operculectomy is a minor surgical procedure that removes the tough gum tissue over a tooth that has formed but cannot erupt through it. It makes sense in a young animal while the tooth's root is still developing and the tooth can still move: once the crown is freed, it may erupt on its own. A dental radiograph is taken first to make sure the tooth is correctly positioned and there is no cyst around it, while in an adult animal such a tooth is usually extracted.
Unerupted teeth in dogs →Also: interceptive extraction, early bite correction
Interceptive orthodontics is early treatment in puppies and kittens aimed at removing an obstacle to normal jaw growth and correct eruption of the permanent teeth. Most often it means extracting deciduous teeth that dig into the gum or palate or “lock” the jaw in the wrong position. It does not guarantee a perfect bite, because jaw growth is largely determined by genetics, but it gives the jaw a chance to develop more freely and relieves pain, so it is not postponed once the problem is noticed.
Bite problems in puppies →Also: reimplantation, putting a knocked-out tooth back
Replantation means putting a knocked-out or displaced tooth back into its socket under anaesthesia and fixing it to the neighbouring teeth with a splint for a few weeks while the ligament around the root heals. The chances are best when the tooth is replaced quickly and the root has not dried out or been damaged. Luxation tears the tooth's blood vessels and nerve, so root canal treatment and follow-up radiographs are usually needed afterwards, since even a successful replantation can be followed by root resorption later.
What to do if a tooth is knocked out →Also: jaw resection, removing part of the jaw
Mandibulectomy is the removal of part of the lower jaw, and maxillectomy of part of the upper jaw, together with the tumour and a margin of healthy tissue around it. It is used for tumours that invade bone, such as acanthomatous ameloblastoma or malignant tumours, and the extent of surgery is planned using histopathology and CT. Most dogs adapt well and eat normally once healed, although the shape of the face or the position of the tongue may change; cats sometimes find adapting harder and may need temporary help with feeding.
Treating oral tumours →Also: pain relief, dental pain management
Multimodal analgesia combines several methods that act on pain in different ways: local dental nerve blocks, pain-relieving medication during and after anaesthesia, and removing the cause of the pain itself. This combination controls pain better than any single drug and allows lower doses of each. Only the vet chooses pain relief for home and how long to give it, based on the species, weight and health of the pet: human painkillers such as ibuprofen, paracetamol (acetaminophen) or aspirin are dangerous for dogs and cats, and paracetamol is especially toxic to cats.
Pain relief: what not to give →Also: antibiotics for dental disease, responsible antibiotic use
Antibiotic stewardship means using antibiotics only when they are truly needed and not as a substitute for treatment. With periodontitis, a root abscess or a broken tooth the source of infection stays in place, so an antibiotic may reduce swelling for a while but does not remove the cause, and the problem returns once the course ends. Professional guidelines do not recommend giving antibiotics to every pet before a dental cleaning or extraction: they are prescribed when clinically indicated, for example for spreading infection, signs of systemic illness or a weakened immune system, and unnecessary courses promote bacterial resistance.
Antibiotics for dental disease →Also: general anaesthesia
Inhalation anaesthesia is general anaesthesia that, after induction, is maintained with an anaesthetic gas delivered through a tube placed in the windpipe. The tube protects the airway from water, blood and tartar debris, and the depth of anaesthesia can be adjusted precisely throughout the procedure. It is given and monitored by a separate veterinary anaesthetist, so the veterinary dentist can focus fully on diagnosis and treatment.
More about anaesthesia →Also: regional nerve blocks, local anaesthesia
Local dental nerve blocks are injections of local anaesthetic near the nerves supplying the teeth and jaws, given in addition to general anaesthesia. They stop pain signals from the treated area during the procedure and in early recovery. Professional guidelines note that blocks can reduce the amount of inhalation anaesthetic needed, so they are given before painful steps such as extractions.
How anaesthesia works →Also: pre-anaesthetic tests, pre-anaesthetic blood tests
A pre-anaesthetic assessment is a health check before anaesthesia to detect hidden disease and tailor the anaesthetic protocol. Its extent depends on the pet's age, history and condition: it may include a complete blood count and biochemistry, an echocardiogram, an abdominal ultrasound and other tests. Age alone is not a reason to avoid anaesthesia; overall health and the test results matter more.
Anaesthesia for older pets →Anaesthetic monitoring is continuous tracking of breathing, heart rhythm, blood oxygen saturation, blood pressure and body temperature throughout the procedure. It is carried out by a veterinary anaesthetist, who adjusts the protocol as soon as the readings change. Monitoring continues after treatment ends, until the pet is awake and stable.
How anaesthesia is monitored →Also: anaesthesia-free dentistry, non-anaesthetic dental scaling
Anaesthesia-free cleaning means scraping visible tartar off the teeth of an animal that is awake. The AVDC does not consider it an acceptable alternative: without anaesthesia the teeth cannot be cleaned below the gum line, probed or radiographed, and sharp instruments near a moving animal can injure the gums. The teeth look cleaner, but periodontitis below the gum line continues, giving the owner a false sense that the problem has been solved.
Why anaesthesia-free cleaning is risky →Also: breathing tube, endotracheal tube
Intubation means placing a soft tube into the windpipe of a pet that is already asleep, so that oxygen and anaesthetic gas can be delivered through it. A cuff on the tube seals against the walls of the windpipe and stops water, blood and tartar debris from entering the airway during the dental procedure. The tube is carefully removed as the pet starts to wake up; afterwards it may cough a little, and if the cough does not settle or gets worse, let the vet know.
Anaesthesia in veterinary dentistry →Also: sedation, light sedation
Sedation is calming with medication: the pet is drowsy and relaxed, but its airway is not protected by a tube and its responses to pain and stimulation are partly preserved. It is used for short, painless procedures or as premedication before anaesthesia. Full dental treatment and dental radiography require general anaesthesia with intubation: only then can work below the gum line be done without pain, while water and tartar debris are kept out of the airway.
Why dentistry needs anaesthesia →Also: capnometer, end-tidal CO2
Capnography is the continuous measurement of carbon dioxide in exhaled breath during anaesthesia, shown on the monitor as a number and a waveform with every breath. It lets the anaesthetist see straight away whether the breathing tube is correctly placed, whether the pet is breathing adequately and whether it needs help with breathing. Capnography is one part of anaesthetic monitoring, alongside pulse oximetry, ECG, blood pressure and temperature.
Is anaesthesia safe? →Also: brushing a dog's teeth, brushing a cat's teeth
Daily brushing with a soft toothbrush and veterinary toothpaste is the most effective way to control plaque at home. Introduce it gradually, with praise, concentrating on the outer surfaces of the teeth along the gum line. A toothbrush removes plaque but not tartar and does not treat existing periodontitis, so if the gums are sore or bleeding, an examination and treatment come first.
Also: dog toothpaste, cat toothpaste
Pet toothpaste is designed to be swallowed: it does not foam and has a flavour animals like. Human toothpaste should not be used, because it contains fluoride and foaming agents, and some contain xylitol, which is toxic to dogs. The brush does most of the work; the paste makes brushing more pleasant for the pet.
Why not human toothpaste →Also: Veterinary Oral Health Council
The VOHC (Veterinary Oral Health Council) is an independent veterinary body that awards its Seal to pet dental products: diets, treats, chews, brushes and water additives. The Seal means the manufacturer submitted trial results showing reduced plaque or tartar to the Council's standards. Such a product helps with prevention, but it does not treat existing disease or replace toothbrushing and professional treatment.
Dental chews: what works →Also: dental chews, chew toys
Dental treats and chews can reduce plaque build-up mechanically or through their ingredients, if they are the right size for the pet and given regularly. Products with the VOHC Seal are the more reliable choice. Very hard items such as bones, antlers or hard nylon toys can break teeth: a simple rule of thumb is that if your fingernail cannot leave a mark, it is probably too hard.
Which chews break teeth →Also: dental check-up, consultation
A preventive check-up in an awake pet helps catch plaque, tartar, broken or extra teeth, bite problems and gum changes early. How often it is needed is decided individually, depending on age, breed, the condition of the teeth and previous treatment. An examination without anaesthesia cannot show what is happening below the gum line, so if changes are found, COHAT with radiographs is recommended.
How often to check teeth →Also: oral antiseptic, pet mouth rinse
Chlorhexidine is an antiseptic found in some veterinary oral gels, rinses and wipes, and it temporarily reduces the number of plaque bacteria. It can be a useful addition to home care, for example after a dental procedure, but it does not remove tartar, does not treat periodontitis or stomatitis and does not replace toothbrushing. Long-term use can stain the teeth and many cats dislike its bitter taste, so agree the product and how long to use it with your vet; human mouthwashes are not suitable for pets.
Care after tooth extraction →Also: water additive for dogs, water additive for cats
Water additives are liquids added to the drinking bowl to slow the build-up of plaque or tartar and reduce odour. Their effect is modest, so products with the VOHC Seal are the more reliable choice, and even these only supplement daily toothbrushing. Some pets drink less because of the unfamiliar taste, so keep an eye on this, especially in cats and pets with chronic illness, and bad breath that does not go away is a reason for an examination, not for masking.
What really works for teeth →Also: dental kibble, does dry food clean teeth
A dental diet is a specially designed dry food whose kibble does not shatter straight away but scrubs the tooth surface as the pet bites through it, or which contains ingredients that slow tartar formation. Ordinary dry food does not work this way: the kibble mostly cracks at the tip of the tooth and barely touches the gum line, so the idea that “dry food cleans teeth” is a myth. A dental diet with the VOHC Seal helps with prevention, but it does not remove existing tartar or replace toothbrushing, and the choice of diet is worth discussing with your vet.
Myths about dog and cat teeth →Also: finger toothbrush
A finger brush is a silicone sleeve with soft bristles that fits over a finger, and it is a convenient way to start getting a pet used to toothbrushing. However, its bristles are thick and short, so it cleans the gum line, where plaque collects, less well than an ordinary soft toothbrush, and in cats and small dogs it is hard to reach the back teeth with it. Your finger is also between the teeth, so once your pet is used to brushing it is better to switch to a small brush with a handle, and any pain or blood during brushing is a reason for an examination.
How to brush a cat's teeth →Also: is this chew too hard, kneecap test
The fingernail test is a simple way to check whether a chew is too hard: press your fingernail into it, and if it leaves no mark, it can probably break a tooth. Another rule of thumb is that a chew should bend a little rather than be rock-hard, and you would not want to be hit on the kneecap with it. Bones, antlers, hooves, hard nylon toys and stones are risky for teeth, and a treat should be large enough that the pet cannot swallow it whole.
Which chews are safe for dogs →Also: how to check my dog's teeth, how to check my cat's teeth, mouth checklist
A monthly home check takes a few minutes in good light: gently lift the lip and look at the gum line, plaque and tartar, the tips of the canines and the large back teeth, the colour of the teeth and the incisors, as well as the cheeks, palate, tongue and the outline of the face. This helps you spot a broken or discoloured tooth, red gums, a growth, an ulcer or a swelling early. A home check does not replace an examination by the vet and cannot show what is happening below the gum line, and it is best not to force open the mouth of a pet that is in pain: take a photo of what you can see and book a consultation instead.
How to check your pet's mouth at home →